Saturday, August 31, 2019

Distributed Deadlock Detection: Mobile Device Processes Essay

The increasing utilization of mobile devices for development in application usually emphasizes or breaches customary computing methods. A number of obtainable problem solutions, for instance deadlock prevention and avoidance or leader election, are not fitted to situations where clients and servers equally move without restraint all over the network. The free movement of these applications creates interfaces and new events for distributed algorithms and functions that are customarily of no concern. The basic structures of a number of conventional distributed algorithms depend on suppositions, such as location of information, message transmittal and static network properties. The mobility of clients and servers in mobile device systems undermine these basic assumptions. Merely imposing conventional methods of solving problems into the mobile device systems alters the dynamic character of their environments by enforcing limitations, such as restricting device mobility. In effect, new efficient and effective methods for solving distributed issues are needed affecting mobile device systems. In a number of distributed applications there are complicated links between services and information. Mobile devices usually condense services and information like objects in OO (object oriented) programming, expanding and augmenting information and service link by including movement to information and services. In general, mobile devices such as those engaging consensus, transfer of data and database processing distribution must be each other well coordinated to offer services and information access. The advanced synchronization needed in these mobile device-based applications can result to multifarious, complex deadlock scenarios that must be identified and given solution. Conventional deadlock distribution setups are not successful when device mobility and errors are included to the requirement of deadlock resolution. What is more, because of their assumptions, conventional methods such as edge chasing on the global wait-for graph, are insufficient solutions in a mobile device structure. A solution should be developed to address the customary problem of resolution and deadlock detection for mobile device systems. What is Deadlock Deadlock is formally defined as: â€Å"A set of processes is deadlocked if each process in the set is waiting for an event that only another process in the set can cause. † In other words, deadlocks can happen every time limited resources are being competed by processes and these processes are permitted to obtain and hold a lock to the resource. If a process is waiting for resources, the resources it holds will be inaccessible to other processes. If, therefore, process A waits on a resource held by process B, and process B is waiting on one of the resources held by A, a deadlock is occurring. A system obtaining this condition is practically dead and to resume operating it must resolve the deadlock. According to Tenenbaum (1992), the four conditions obtaining a deadlock are: (1) Mutual exclusion. A resource can only be consigned to precisely one resource; (2) Hold and wait. Processes can hold one resource and can request for more; (3) No preemption. Resources cannot be effectively detached from a process; and (4) Circular wait. A circular sequence of processes is required, each process waiting for a resource held by the subsequent member of the sequence. In dealing with deadlocks, there are also four methods generally applied according to Tenenbaum (1992): ignore, detect, prevent, and avoid. Ignoring the problem presents the simplest way to deal with deadlocks. Detection of a deadlock before it occurs is a method trying to identify and locate deadlocks and resolve them. Avoidance of a deadlock is a method that attempts to find out if a deadlock will take place whenever a resource is requested and respond to the request in a way that avoids the occurrence of the deadlock. Prevention of a deadlock is system structuring in such a way that any of the four conditions that permit the possibility of a deadlock cannot take place. Problems with Mobile Devices in Deadlock Detection Breakdown and movement have to be considered in approaching distributed deadlock detection for a mobile device system. For instance, resources and users in conventional distributed deadlock detection do not move about through the system and each server has information about the site of other points that make up the network. In a mobile device system, devices execute operations by going through the source of information and performing locally to gain advantage of locality of reference. The mobile device and the host server can carry on interacting with other resources in the network. In effect, transactions can be distributed over multiple host servers bypassing the node that set off the transaction. Device movement clearly results in problems for algorithms that rely on information of location. In approaches for distributed deadlock detection such as core server or edge chasing, assumptions of location cannot be precluded as data is centrally collected or structured through a sequence of evaluations and verifications. To be able to detect and resolve distributed deadlocks, the processes must be able to pinpoint the nodes initiating the transaction. In a mobile device system, a device’s movement and operations cannot be traced simply. Hence, the device that set off a transaction is not easy to identify, as well as the secondary devices that are involved indirectly. Assumptions regarding location must be applied if a process is to operate efficiently and effectively in a mobile device system. Approach to Distributed Deadlock Detection in Mobile Device Settings The following assumptions illustrate the approach to distributed deadlock detection in mobile device settings: – All types of mobile devices are detached from the structure of the network, and therefore, they cannot move through the network by bypassing the information of how the nodes are linked. – The configuration of the network is immobile or static when the process starts. Priority transactions or two-stage commit are being utilized in standard deadlock avoidance methods. These systems permit the detection and processing of resolution to make certain that a device will not, of its own, unlock or unblock a resource during the process of detection. This feature is important in preventing shadow deadlock detection. – Only a user device can lock or unblock resources when it is actually present at the same location as the resource it is trying to manipulate. This feature permits host servers to convey the particulars being requested by a user device’s resource to its linked deadlock detection complements. A level of coordination between devices or common resources is present. As the devices execute their tasks, resources can be locked. This indicates that they are made solely to an individual user device. – All through the locking process user devices must communicate with the host server. The host is the final validating authority and can permit or reject access to a resource. Given that the host server can disallow the lock request of a device, a respond is needed. Depending on the device’s task, it could block or wait on the resource or it could resume processing and moving through the system.  The validating authority does not instantaneously block the device, as this would restrict flexibility and restrict the dynamic feature of the mobile device setting. – Devices must inform the host server if devices block on the resource. This permits the server to convey the condition of a device to its deadlock detection complements and reject any further request made by the blocked device. Devices that are blocked cannot unblock until the host authorizes their requests. – Devices must be distinctly recognizable the moment they hold a resource. They can be indentified in the device system at the time of the deadlock detection process. The role of identifying nodes may be made before a user device blocks or at the moment they lock a resource only. Overview of the System The mobile device system employs device-adapted methods that are founded in conventional edge-pushing global wait-for graph systems. Particularly, the distributions of the global wait-for graph into in-house maintained divisions and the introduction of deadlock detection examinations are based by conventional solutions. The three kinds of devices occupying the mobile device system are: User Device.  It is the only device in the system that dynamically executes tasks and locks or uses resources. It represents a device that applies the systems. It has no participation in deadlock resolution and detection; Phantom Device. This device is created by host servers and takes charge for keeping the resources locked by a particular user device, tracking it through the network and for starting the deadlock detection point. It further determines the information collected by detection devices to introduce deadlock resolution and detects and retrieves from errors during the process of deadlock detection. It signifies a part of the global wait-for graph; and, Detection Device. Phantom devices create this device when communicated by the host server that their aimed at device has blocked. They are diminutive, very light mobile devices that are tasked for calling hosts and creating the global wait-for graph and for decoding the deadlock condition. Initiating a Deadlock As user devices accomplish tasks, they may of their own lock resources all over the mobile device system. When user devices are created initially, they are not dynamically tracked by the host servers for deadlock detection purposes. The new devices can move without restraint over the network and use resources. User device tracking is done via environment tokens. Every time a device, therefore, approaches at a host server it must submit a token. This token has no significance to the device, and is only utilized by the host servers to manage the process of deadlock detection. User device tracking operations start at the time a device requests a resource lock. Part of permitting the request process is checking for a phantom device by the host server that is linked with the requesting device. If no shadow is present, one is generated and linked with the user device. The user device’s server token is then finally brought up to date to indicate the presence of the newly generated shadow device. When a shadow device is generated for a user device, it enables the host servers to control the process of deadlock detection. Shadow devices are informed of new device locks by host servers through a classified message. The message contains information on deadlock detection, such as the priority and identifier of the resource locked. When a phantom device is created and linked with a user device, they move together all over the network. This harmonized movement is synchronized by instantaneously routing a user’s shadow once the user transmits a passage request to the host server. Notably, this pairing of devices puts limitations on user devices. A user device cannot execute these actions if its linked shadow device is non-existent: moving, locking, and unlocking. The user is informed of the breakdown and the request must be submitted again. This limitation makes certain that the phantom devices will include the precise condition of the wait-for graph, even if they are postponed at the time of sending. Once a user device requests a lock that is rejected by a host server, it could consider blocking and waiting for the resource to be resolved. If the consideration to block is decided, the user device must notify the host server. Host servers respond to blocking information by notifying the user device’s shadow to permit deadlock data to be verified. If the user has no lock held, a shadow device is not present and cannot be notified. This is acceptable since the user device has no other locks held and it cannot be a participant of a distributed deadlock. The host server notifies shadow devices that their target object has blocked or unblocked via a coded message. Blocking and unblocking activities start the process of deadlock initiation. Once the shadow devices have been informed of a block activity, shadow devices inquire the host server to ascertain who is holding the lock on the target object resource. When the host server transmits information to the device identifier on who is holding the lock, a subsequent inquiry is done to ascertain if the device is remote or local. If the locking device is remote, the shadow device initiates the sequence of distributed deadlock detection. If not, no particular processing is occurring. Distributed Deadlock Detection Phantom devices introduce the deadlock detection sequence by creating detection devices. In the creation process, detection devices are commenced with their parent phantom device’s listing of locked resources and the servers where they are situated. This generation of a committed detection device permits a shadow to search at the same time for deadlocks and accordingly respond to other shadow detectors. When initiated, detector devices visit the locked resources by their aimed at user device. By noting the location of the network of each locked resource, routing of detector devices is speeded up. Each visit of the detector device in a resource, they inquire the host server to ascertain if other devices on that resource are blocked. If there are blocked devices found, their linked shadow device is located by the detector and inquires for their deadlock detection data. The processing happens at the same time for every blocked device on a resource held by an offsite device. The deadlock detection response is a list of recorded deadlock detection data that could include the following: Name of the Device. The distinctive identifier information of the user device; Resource Blocked. The resource that the device is blocked with, that includes the unique name of the resource, the user device that has this resource being locked, the server’s name that holds this resource, and the resource’s priority; Basic Locks. The list of basic locks or resources as held by this device. Relevant data regarding a user device that is blocked on a resource is summarized in each deadlock detection record. This information is included at each resource to the deadlock detection table of the detector since the device is blocked on a resource that is held by the detector’s object target. Because these devices are blocked on a resource that is held by another device, their overall detection table is being held indirectly by that device. The secondary information is applicable because blocked devices cannot act to release resources at the same time waiting for the locked resource by a detector’s object target. At the time a detector device visits every resources that were put in its initial array of locks, it goes back to its initial host server. When it arrives, the detector device notifies its shadow that it has came back and conveys its assembled deadlock table. The shadow device ascertains this table, which depicts the global wait-for graph, to make certain the presence of a deadlock. Shadow devices employ their target user device as a key to deadlock detection. If their target device shows in the table communicated by the detector, the target device is waiting on a resource as held by itself. Apparently a deadlock is present because the target device is blocked and that resource can never be released. Shadow devices perform recovery from breakdowns at the time of a deadlock detection point. Detection of a failure is performed through a running cycle calculation delay. Each shadow device is initialized with a fixed cycle time delay depending on the network type and its features. Shadow devices assume that their detector devices will be able to determine all of the required locks in less than four times the optimum delay cycle. When a detector device does not give a response in the optimal time allowed, the shadow device expects that a failure occurs and creates a new device detector to carry on the process of the failed device. Conclusion The suppositions of conventional distributed deadlock systems prevent them from successful completion in a mobile device setting. A successful detection and resolution of a mobile device distributed deadlocks applies the advantages of the mobile device model. The principal features of the advanced method, in particular, that separate it from the conventional solutions could be: reference locality, structure independence, asynchronous process, unrestricted movement, and fault tolerance. These features are accomplished through an independent platform, mobile device distributed deadlock detection resolution. The devices that use resources in the mobile device system are differentiated from the deadlock detection process. This differentiation generates dedicated devices for deadlock initialization, resolution, and detection. These devices are totally fitted to the features of the mobile device setting and operate together to perform a comprehensive distributed deadlock detection resolution. Mobile device settings demand structure flexibility and tolerance of fault. Integrating these properties and features into a mobile device solution affects overall performance. The features need further developing and messages. Because of the congruent nature of mobile device settings, there is no definite fact that these further messages do significantly affect deadlock detection efficiency and effectiveness. In addition, the insufficiency of comparable device solutions poses comparison and examination non-conclusive.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Housekeeping by Marilynne Robinson: An Analysis Essay

Throughout chapters one and two of Housekeeping by Marilynne Robinson, the narrator of the novel, Ruth, compares and contrasts the parenting styles of both her grandmother and great aunts towards her sister Lucille and herself. The girls have been between two different parenting styles, one that was caring but cautious, and another that was well-meaning but indifferent. The styles of parenting presented to Lucille and Ruth by the women in their life play an important role in how the girls will learn receive love and care in their lives. They have learned so far that love is fragile and true relationships cannot be forged in a day-dream manner. Slyvia’s parenting style is the best example of the day-dream concept. After losing her husband in a train accident, Slyvia (the girl’s grandmother), tries her best to nurture her granddaughters in an orderly but distant manner. The years that she raised her girls in this fashion was effective in the present, but the result of her surface level interactions with her daughters left her estranged from them in her old age. Ruth and Lucille’s grandmother sees her opportunity to take care of them after their mother’s death as a second chance to fix her past mistakes as a mother. Their grandmother believes that she never really fostered a strong bond with her daughters, she was able to learn her daughters’ routines in the house and have them do their chores in an orderly manner, but she never got to know who they were as people, and most importantly â€Å"She had never taught them to be kind to her. † (Pg. 19) This quote emphasizes the idea that Slyvia never taught her daughters how to truly love. I think it is the lack of intimacy she shared with her daughters that she regrets the most. Because Slyvia regrets her inability to know her daughters as people, she now wishes to distance herself from her daughter’s inner thoughts, most likely from the fear of shock. â€Å"Perhaps she did not wish to learn by indirection what Helen did not wish to tell her. † (Pg. 20) Lucille and Ruth’s mother was proven to be unstable, and her suicide shed light on the internal suffering she must have been enduring before she killed herself. Slyvia, I feel, does not want to ponder the idea that her daughter was severely unhappy, especially given the fact that she felt her time spent with her daughters in their youth was full of serenity. Ruth realizes that their grandmother is over-consciousness but she believes it’s due to her heightened sense of perception. â€Å"I think that she was aware of too many things, having no principle for selecting the more from the less important, and that her awareness could never be diminished, since it was among the things she had thought of as familiar that this disaster had taken shape. † (Pg. 5) Ruth and Lucille’s grandmother has always been cautious in her parenting style because she is afraid to lose her charges like she lost her husband, fleetingly and without notice. And, it is this nervous cautiousness that has harbored a sense of quiet awareness and self-duty both her daughters and granddaughters. The self-duty becomes even more necessary for the girls to carry-on with their lives after their grandmother passes. They are handed off to their great aunts Lilly and Nona after Sylvia’s death, and their awkward pretentious sense of nurturing leaves an even bigger sense of distance in mother figures for the girls. Lilly and Nona had no genuine compassion for their god nieces; they simply were taking care of the girls because it was the dutiful thing to do. An example of their stiff compassion can be shown on page 29 of the novel â€Å"They were, though maiden ladies, of a buxomly maternal appearance that contrasted oddly with their brusque, unpracticed pats and kisses. † The quote is describing the two aunts as motherly appearing figures, but in contrast they were actually very far from being as warm and affectionate as true mothers are capable of being. Ruth’s conclusion after staying a few days with her aunts of their temperaments can be seen in the following quote. â€Å"Lily and Nona, I think, enjoyed nothing except habit and familiarity, the precise replication of one day in the next. † (Pg. 32) The two aunt’s like routine and they dislike anything disrupting that routine especially children. They have no patience or energy for doing new things, and they are not willing to adapt to Ruth and Lilly’s home town wholly, they often talk about moving the girls back to their own home. The contrast in the grandmother’s and the great aunt’s parenting style is self-explanatory. The grandmother’s affection was overzealous while the great aunts’ display is hollow. The girls are affected in a way that paints their image of love, their grandmother taught them to be intuitive of other’s feelings, while their great aunts’ have shown them that people are not always selfless. The most important thing the girls have yet to experience in a parent/child relationship however is a true bond of love and full awareness of who the other is as a person. The girls so far have been taught to feign emotions that are proper, and to show surface level respect for their mother figures.

Thursday, August 29, 2019

The Beauty of the Tropical Monsoon Climate

The tropical monsoon climate is found in those regions where there is a complete seasonal reversal of winds. It is mainly found beyond the equatorial region between 10Â ° and 25Â ° North and South of the Equator. On-shore summer winds blowing from over tropical warm oceans generate the abundant precipitation, while the off-shore winds from over land make the weather dry during winter. The most clearly defined monsoon climates are located in the coastal areas of the eastern and southern Asia. For example, India, Burma, Bangladesh, Indochina, Southern China and the Philippines experience a tropical monsoon climate.Surface relief, direction of the coast line and the extension of the monsoon into middle-latitudes cause a number of sub-types of the monsoon climate found over this most widespread continent. Rains are abundant and intense in tropical monsoon areas. But there is a distinct dry season, though very short. However, the amount of precipitation during the rainy season is so hea vy that it more than gives back the absence of rainfall for a few months. Soils retain moisture to support the plant cover. In the tropical monsoon climate summer is generally the rainy season.During the high-sun period the on-shore winds bring a lot of moisture from over the tropical warm oceans to the land. Wherever these moisture-laden winds are forced to rise, abundant precipitation results. However, the coastal regions, if backed by highlands, receive the maximum amount of precipitation. It is important that the leeward sides of the coastal ranges suffer from the rain shadow effects. During the winter monsoon period, January and February are the driest months in South-east Asia. The distribution of rainfall in the subcontinent is more uneven than elsewhere.The rainfall decreases from east to west and from north to south in so much so that the western and north-western regions have almost semi-arid climate. The monsoon circulation in South-east Asia is characteristically governe d by the migration of ITC. Because of differential heating of the continent and the adjoining oceans, there is a complete reversal of pressure gradient over the huge landmass of South-east Asia. During winter there are centers of high pressure over the continent so that there is a flow of air towards the oceanic low pressure centers.These winds are termed ‘the winter monsoon' in the eastern and southern Asia. In summer, the huge landmass of Asia develops low pressure centers. These centers are reinforced by the ITC which moves suddenly to the north into the Indian subcontinent. Under these conditions the sea-to-land pressure gradients are established resulting in on-shore winds in eastern and southern Asia. These winds pick up huge quantities of moisture from the warm tropical oceans. Thus, the summer monsoons blowing from southwest Asia and eastern Asia are capable of giving heavy rains wherever conditions are favourable.As the winter approaches, the low-pressure centers are gradually replaced by the high pressure systems. The change in precipitation is what gives this climate type its name. Precipitation only falls during the summer months, usually from May-August with June and July having the heaviest rain. The whole dry season usually has less than 4 inches of rain. During the wet season, at least 25 inches will fall. Some areas of Tropical Wet and Dry in the path of monsoon winds can receive incredible amounts of rain due to seasonal winds called monsoon.Seasonality of its precipitation is the hallmark and most well-known characteristic of the monsoon climate. Though the annual amount of precipitation is quite similar to that of the rain forest, monsoon precipitation is concentrated into the high-sun season. Maritime equatorial and maritime tropical air masses travel from the ocean on to land during the summer, where they are uplifted by either convection or convergence of air to induce condensation. The low-sun season is characterized by a short dr ought season when high pressure inhibits precipitation formation.In the case of the Asian monsoon, the replacement of the thermal low with the subsidence of the Siberian High suppresses uplift. Air masses that dominate this period are dry given their continental origin or stability. A distinct dry season from October to May, when the temperature are lower, the interior of Asia is a region of high pressure. Wind blow over the land in a north east direction , carrying little or no moisture with them. These cool , dry North East Monsoon winds blows toward areas of low pressure and do not bring rain.A wet season from June to September, when the wind change in direction, the wind blow in the region of low pressure. Winds blow across the equator and blow over the oceans, they are warmer and carry a lot of moisture. They bring alot of rain. Total rainfall can reach 600 m The grasslands of Tropical Wet and Dry support many herbivores (plant eaters) who graze in the grasses. Most of these an imals usually migrate and run in large herds for safety. Examples include wildebeests, gazelles, zebras, elephants, giraffes, etc. Many carnivores (meat eaters) follow and hunt the herbivores.Lions, cheetahs, hyenas, and large birds hunt the savannas of Africa. In the coastal regions of the tropical monsoon climate the temperatures are uniformly warm. Air temperatures show a marked annual cycle. The highest temperatures in this climate are recorded during summer just before the arrival of rains.. Average temperatures for the summer months vary from 27Â ° to 32Â °C. During winter, however, the average temperature at inland stations may vary from 10Â ° to 26. 7Â °C. In higher latitudes the drop in the minimum temperatures is large. During the wet seasons, there is extensive cloud cover.This blocks most of the incoming solar radiation during the day, and traps the outgoing radiation at night. Thus, the diurnal temperature range is small. Range of temperature in the tropical monsoon climate is a bit larger than that in the equatorial climate. The annual range registers a variation ranging from 2Â °C to 11Â °C. The diurnal range in the coastal regions is less than what it is in the continental interiors. Another characteristic feature of the diurnal range of temperature is that it is considerably higher in the dry summer months than in any other part of the year.The monsoon circulation in South-east Asia is characteristically governed by the migration of ITC. Because of differential heating of the continent and the adjoining oceans, there is a complete reversal of pressure gradient over the huge landmass of South-east Asia. During winter there are centers of high pressure over the continent so that there is an outflow of air towards the oceanic low pressure centers. These winds are termed ‘the winter monsoon' or the ‘dry monsoon' in the eastern and southern Asia. In summer the huge landmass of Asia develops low pressure centers.These centers are r einforced by the ITC which moves suddenly to the north into the Indian subcontinent to 20Â ° or 25Â ° N latitude. Under these conditions the sea-to-land pressure gradients are established resulting in on-shore winds in eastern and southern Asia. These winds pick up huge quantities of moisture from the warm tropical oceans. Thus, the summer monsoons blowing from southwest in the southern Asia and southeast in eastern Asia are capable of giving heavy rains wherever conditions are favourable. As the winter approaches, the low-pressure centers are gradually replaced by the high pressure systems.In fact, the so-called winter monsoons are nothing but the re-establishment of the northeast trades which are dry except in those areas where they reach after passing over the sea. Rains are abundant and intense in tropical monsoon areas. But there is a distinct dry season, though very short. However, the amount of precipitation during the rainy season is so heavy that it more than gives back t he absence of rainfall for a few months. Soils retain moisture to support the plant cover. In the tropical monsoon climate summer is generally the rainy season.During the high-sun period the on-shore winds bring a lot of moisture from over the tropical warm oceans to the land. Wherever these moisture-laden winds are forced to rise, abundant precipitation results. However, the coastal regions, if backed by highlands, receive the maximum amount of precipitation. It is important that the leeward sides of the coastal ranges suffer from the rain shadow effects. During the winter monsoon period, January and February are the driest months in South-east Asia. The distribution of rainfall in the subcontinent is more uneven than elsewhere.The rainfall decreases from east to west and from north to south in so much so that the western and north-western regions have almost semi-arid climate. In the tropical monsoon climate, the amount and distribution of precipitation determine, to a large exten t, the type of natural vegetation. Towards the equator-ward margins, where the precipitation is heavy, the tropical monsoon forest resembles the tropical rainforest. However, because of the seasonality of rainfall, species are limited in the monsoon forests. Towards the drier margins, rainforests are replaced by more sparse jungles, thorn forests and savanna grasslands.In India, for example, there are different types of natural vegetation ranging from the tropical rain-forests of the Malabar and Assam to the deciduous forests of the areas with moderate rainfall to thorny bushes of the more arid regions with scanty rainfall. Teak is the most valuable timber, and it is found in Burma and certain other parts of India. Besides, shisham, sal, mahua, mango tree, jamun, neem, and many more species of trees are found in the deciduous forests which shed their leaves before the commencement of the long dry season in order to conserve moisture.In fact, the deciduous trees of the monsoon forest are a fine illustration of their adaptability to a wet-dry climate in which rainy season with adequate water surplus alternates with a dry season with soil-water deficit. These forests are generally more open than the tropical rainforests. The trees are less tall and the branching starts at a lower level. Tree species may vary from 30 to 40 in a small area. Trees have thick and rough barks as moisture conserving device. Tree tops are fairly large and round. Outside India, the typical monsoon forest is found in Burma, Thailand and Cambodia.In West Africa and in Central and South America there are large areas of deciduous monsoon forest bordering the equatorial rain forests? In more humid areas where the forest is dense, the flying and climbing species of the animal life of the equatorial forest are dominant. But in drier regions where the trees are widely spaced with grasslands, large animals constitute the animal kingdom. Some of these animals are carnivores, while others are herbi vores, such as, tigers, lions, leopards, wolves and jackals, elephants, wild buffalo, rhinoceros, deer, and antelopes.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Diamond's Viewpoint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Diamond's Viewpoint - Essay Example The nervous system is made up of neurons, and they are tasked with the responsibility of transmitting information in the body. Communication is as a result of chemical and electronic means. The cellular structure of a neuron comprises axons and dendrites. Synapses are the connection between cells. Neurons produce neurotransmitters – a chemical that enables neurons to communicate with one another. Diamond illustrates that the trees of the mind are neurons, and as trees, they have branches that interconnect to send and obtain messages to and from the mind. Environmental incentive affects the brain growth of a child, and productive environment stimulates the brain positively (Diamond and Hopson 18). Brain enrichment is significant at a young age since the brain is still young and learning can be incorporated easily. The full potential of a child can be ensured through the learning that they experience at a young age. Children use the skills they learn: thinking and remembering, to help them through school. The brain, when stimulated well and positively, will give satisfying

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Design a usable and interactive on-line DVD rental system Coursework

Design a usable and interactive on-line DVD rental system - Coursework Example There is, therefore, need for development of an android mobile application for DVD rental. This will easy for movie lovers to rent DVDs without having to do it manually or using their PCs. New Ideas in Brief The new system will have an optional function that will occasionally update the user on the latest arrivals at the movie store. This will be done either by sending automatic short messages using the Short Messages Service or through email. In addition, the system will give users additional payment options. Existing Systems There are DVD rental systems that exist in the market. Each of them has its strengths and weaknesses. Some of these are related to their user interfaces, the media of interaction between users and the core systems. One example of a system that already exists is Blockbuster.co.uk. A detailed analysis of user interfaces for Blockbuster.co.uk using Nielsen’s Heuristics yields the following results: Visibility The application does not have a mechanism for ke eping users updated on the progress they make while using the system. The developer should consider introducing progress bars in subsequent versions of their software. Familiarity (similarity of system with real world occurrences) Blockbuster.co.uk did a good job to use icons and symbols that are easy to identify, learn, and remember. This makes it easier for users to master the system. User Control and Freedom Blockbuster.co.uk has different categories of users, mainly categorized into two; Movie Administrators and Members. Whereas movie administrators have the rights to setup different types of accounts, edit, and delete items, members can only search and view movies apart from adding, editing and deleting member’s details. This categorization of users makes user management easy; hence, making the system efficient. The users are free to edit their personal details as they wish; they can change their names, email, password, as well as manage their address books and browsing preferences. Users also have the freedom of deleting their profiles by unregistering their accounts on Blockbuster.co.uk. Consistency and Standards Source:: http:// http://www.blockbuster.co.uk/help/help.aspx The user interface is consistent across different windows; buttons and icons with similar appearances and labels perform similar functions throughout the system. For example, the â€Å"search† field and shopping basket are located in similar positions as other e-commerce sites such as Amazon.com. This makes it easy for users with experience in online shopping to manoeuvre through the online store. In addition, it helps them to recognize various functionalities of the online store easily, rather than have to recall every detail about it. Source:: http://www.amazon.com Error prevention, detection, and resolution Source: https://www.blockbuster.co.uk/account/lostinpost.aspx?tab=home?href=/account/account.aspx Blockbuster.co.uk has a good error prevention system; it prompts the user to confirm his or her input into the system before committing them. In this way, the user consciously authorizes every transaction made by the system. The interface also has an area where users can report DVDs that get lost in post in the process of delivery. This allows users to alert management in case there is any error or discrepancy with their services. This helps the company to correct any mistakes it makes as it delivers services to its clients. Help and

Rwandan genocide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Rwandan genocide - Essay Example They made a clear explanation that this was meant for ethnic distinction. In most cases, they considered the Tutsi to be superior to the rest of the population and replaced the Hutu leaders with the Tutsi. Later in1950s, the Belgians altered their support for the Tutsi elites; they opted to support the Hutus who were the majority. These changes came as a result of several events, it included influential priests who were active politically and were supporting revolution. The second event was the movement of liberation in the Africa and European colonies. The third event was the rebellion from the Tutsi dominated National Rwandese Union (Union Nationale Ruandaise, UNAR). They were against the Belgian rule and supported the monarchy rule. They wanted an immediate independence from the foreigners. The Belgians chose to support the PARMEHUTU (The Party for the Emancipation of the Hutus). In 1959, the Tutsi leader Mwaami Rudahigwa died immediately, the Hutus rose in rebellion killing sever al Tutsis. Those who died were estimated to be ten to one hundred thousand. However, Belgians did not intervene. Several refugees fled the country. In 1961, the Belgians pushed for elections and Gregoire Kayibanda, the leader of PARMEHUTU, came to power as the first president of Rwanda. In the same year, the country was declared independent, and it was granted formally in 1962. In an attempt to regain power, the Tutsi refugees from the neighboring countries organized major attacks between 1961 and 1964. Each attack resulted in a massacre of Tutsis who were still in the country. In 1973, Kayibanda was overthrown by Juvenal Habyarimana, the then Major General of the Army through a military coup. Kayibanda had ruled unfairly and favored Hutus from the southern Rwanda where he came from. This created the difference between the Hutus of the south and those of the northwest. Habyarimana came from the North West. He introduced a quota system in several institutions which included education and the government in an attempt of â€Å"fairness†. He decreed that the Tutsi’s percentage in schools, government offices and military should not be more than the percentage of the Tutsis population which was 9%. A census was organized for the definition of this percentage, and identity cards were re-issued indicating one’s ethnicity. The identity cards were vital tools used during the genocide. In 1990, Rwanda was attacked from the north by rebel group which known as the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). Its composition was several refugees from the Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zaire. Fred Rwigyema who was the rebel’s group leader died and was replaced by Paul Kagame who was his close ally from the Ugandan National Resistance Army. Even though most members of the group died due to harsh conditions, the rebels who were disciplined and had appropriate training were a significant threat to the government. According to Lemarchand (2009), the most extreme el ements of the Hutu elite formed Coalition for the Defense of the Republic (CDR). It comprised of the akazu a group that surrounded Habyarimana’s wife Madame Agathe Kanziga. The majority were close family members and friends from Ruhengiri and Gisenyi. They formed civilian militias known as the interahamwe. They had extreme racist ideas and increased fear among the Tutsi. According to Jones, (2010), the Hutu manifesto was published in December 1990 in Kangura newspaper that belonged to

Monday, August 26, 2019

Basic English Knowledge Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Basic English Knowledge - Assignment Example After going through the material, quizzes and other knowledge testing exercises I am now able to pick out my mistakes and rectify them. The idea that I am speaking or writing flawlessly, or with minimal mistakes, gives me confidence, sense of achievement and motivation to continue and improve. Â  After completing half of this course, I have gained knowledge on the use of conjunctions, adverbial phrases, prepositional phrases and other grammatical concepts. I am able to distinguish between the concepts and make use of them in different situations. The restricted grammatical knowledge, that I previously had stopped me from explaining things and circumstances. The knowledge that this course has brought to me, has made it easier for me to express my feelings and opinions. Â  This course has helped me in making proper tenses. I am able to properly define the time period that I am referring to. I have ample knowledge about the words and phrases that explain verbs and nouns. In addition, the formation of sentences as improved markedly. I am able to distinguish between a requesting, commanding and other nature of sentences. The course has greatly helped me in improving my English reading, writing and speaking skills.

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Revolutionary Era Weapons Annotated Bibliography - 1

Revolutionary Era Weapons - Annotated Bibliography Example nd, it was permanently closed and towards the other end temporarily closed using a cannonball, and between an explosive was put in place (Hamilton, 2013, 39-42). A pedal-operated propeller powered the submarine. The submarine was also well equipped with a barrel of powder. In cannons, when the charge is put a match to via the touch-hole, it blows up, or quickly transforms to exceedingly dense gas, pushing out the ball to execute whichever service it is compulsory of it. A wall was demolished by this service, or tore apart men as well as horses, or smashed into the wooden region of a vessel, all commonly mandatory duties (Alagappa, 2009, 44-49). The submarine submerged through admitting water inside the hull and surfaced through pumping the water out by a hand pump. A keg of powder was the submarine’s torpedo, and it was to be fixed to the hull of an enemy ship’s (Alagappa, 2009, 33-36). A time fuse was then used to detonate it. Normally the cannon could reach range of several hundred yards. This was the reason why cannons were a highly useful weapon of the Revolutionary War. Even when shot within this range regularly, the cannons proved that they could perform a great amount of damage merely for the reason that the war was being fought openly, and even as they were in formation (Larson, 2010, 44-49). Submarines were effectively used to attach explosives to British ships without being

Saturday, August 24, 2019

The Impact of Technology on Today's Society Research Paper

The Impact of Technology on Today's Society - Research Paper Example The research is based on data gathered from secondary sources. Technology is the application of science to solve a problem. However, there is no definite definition of technology. As technology advances its definition changes. No one definition can describe technology without limiting it. This is because technology evolves each and every day to become more complex and sophisticated. Different types of technology work in different ways for example, we use information technology like the internet for creating and securing data, learning and communication. The scope of this paper is to establish the impact of technology on society.  As the report declares  the goal is to find out the impact of technology on society socially, politically, economically and its influence on health and the environment. The general thing about the different types of technology is that people use them to make life better.  Technology has existed for as long as man. The technology that existed in the pas t may not be as sophisticated and complex as it is today. The introduction of this paper defines technology as the use of science to solve problems and make life better. Computers and the internet may not have existed in the past but science was used to progress man, for example; pyramids of the Egyptians existed in the past.  The technology that exists today may not have existed in the past but there were innovations and inventions then that can also be termed as technology.

Friday, August 23, 2019

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Journal - Essay Example On the same day I started to research McGraw Hill Publishing which I should have began much earlier for the details of my business class. I was trying to find out the definition of love. Various interesting questions were disturbing me. I was thinking that when any body is in touch with someone for quite some time then whether he/she would be in love with that person. On September 16, I went to visit the grave of my mother accompanied by my brother. After reaching there we found that the gates were closed. I doubted whether we would accomplish anything by praying from the gates of grave instead of doing it from the grave. After that we ate together. We had a good time together after quite some time. On that day my father had a fight with my step mother and once again the issue of fighting was my brother. I think my brother should ignore her (my step mother) if he can not have share healthy relationship with her. On September 19, I could not wake up early and as a result I missed the prayers. I was upset because the prayer takes place once a year and I missed it just because of my laziness. I realized that next time I need to wake up early in the morning so that I can attain it in time. September 19 was a nice holiday, because my sister and her husband came to our place and spent the day with us. It was actually quite boring to stay everyday at an empty house just with my parents. On that day a interesting question came in my mind. I asked myself whether the concept of throwing away all sins into a fish bowl really make any sense or not. The last day began with the visit to the synagogue. On this day, my brother-in-law got to see an unusual sight. It was about the killing of fish in the synagogue. He was not comfortable with the sight. We did not have such feelings as we had become quite used to it. It was a inspiring holiday for me. I learnt

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Convey the story Essay Example for Free

Convey the story Essay Heloise and Abelard by James Burger has its place among the most famous biographies that were written about the pair of lovers who lived in Medieval Age, and which is based on the correspondence the two held. It opens a new perspective on the life of the Dark Ages, on its institutions and philosophies, and most of all, on its theology. The lovers who became the victims of the religious age they lived in, that could not admit their love, or any other type of love, for that matter, except religious love. The characters themselves are besides the initiators of free love, the ones who foresee the escape from the too rigid, rule-based religion of the Medieval centuries: â€Å"Let us read after this the famous Colloquy of Erasmus, The Franciscan, and we will find repeated all the essential ideas of Heloise: Christ preached but one religion, the same for layfolk and monks; the Christian renounces the world and professes to live only for Christ, and St. Paul did not preach this doctrine for monks but for everyone; layfolk, even the married, are bound to chastity and poverty quite as much as monks; in short, the only rule binding the Christian is the Gospel. Once she has adopted this course, Heloises frank and direct reason would not let her stop. Carried away by her own logic she was to touch, one after the other, almost all the critical points on which the humanists and reformers of the sixteenth century are so insistent. Why forbid meat to monks? Meat in itself is neither good nor bad. Let us not attach religious importance to things which in fact have none. Nothing counts save what can lead us to the kingdom of God. Let us forget, then, these exterior practices common to truly pious souls and to hypocrites, It is only interior acts that really count for the Christian. The rest is Judaism. † (Gilson, 132) Thus, the point that the story of Heloise and Abelard is trying to make, is that theirs was the one of the most tragic examples of the many failures of the Medieval Age, which persecuted through religion and rigid commandments, trough enclosing monasteries and punishments of all kind, instead of opening the road to what true spirituality means. The touching and tragic story of the lovers impresses because of the nobility of their thoughts and feelings, and also to the spectacular love story, which remains intense throughout their lives. Love is blended with the Christian doctrine, and the lovers try to find a bridge between the two, something that will only be found later in the history or religion, with the advent of humanism. 2. Explain who Heloise and Abelard were. What is their background and upbringing? What brings their paths together? Heloise and Abelard form one of the most famous couples known for their romantic love, so often compared to such immortal stories like that of Romeo and Juliet. However, their story is the real account of a twelfth century couple that lasted throughout the centuries both because of the unusual love story that united them, and also because of the startling sincerity and openness of the letters that favors a clear view of their characters and lives, and of the circumstances of the century they lived in. Pierre Abelard was a well-known philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages, whose studies have been concerned with mainly with logic and dialectics in the early years, and then with ethics and theology later on in his life. Of the account he himself gives of his early life in the letter addressed to his friend Philintus, we find that in his early youth he discovered his â€Å"natural genius for study†, and became â€Å"smitten with love for books†, so much so that he decided to renounce at once the fortune that father had bestowed on him as his eldest son, to his brothers and to dedicate himself entirely to learning. His passion and ambition to become a great logician soon brought him notoriety inside the circles of scholars, and he stood out as one of the most reputed teachers of his time. It is in the midst of his glory as a philosopher that the event that will change his life forever occurs: he sees Heloise, the niece of a certain Fulbert. She is belongs to a lower social class than he but she is equal in all else to him: she is literate and very learned, perhaps even surpassing him in depth of thought and feeling. All these were unique and very rare qualities in a medieval woman. Abelard concocts the perfect means of making her acquaintance, with a clear intention to conquer her and make her his mistress. He talks to the uncle, and after having offered him a sum of money, he obtains the latter’s assent to instruct his daughter as her teacher. Heloise, who has reason enough to admire him for his knowledge and brilliant mind, soon falls in love with him and becomes his lover, without the slightest resistance. It is here that their fascinating but tragic story actually begins. 3. Who was William of Champeaux? Discuss his influence in the life of Abelard. Why did Abelard achieve both acclaim and notoriety? Abelard has been, because of his originality of thought, in controversy with many of the philosophers of the age, among these, William of Champeaux, who began by being his teacher, but who was soon outwitted in the lectures he gave by his student. This naturally created animosity between the two, and it became even more founded when Abelard started teaching himself, and drew to his side most of the students that formerly had been instructed by Champeaux: â€Å"I put myself under the direction of one Champeaux, a professor who had acquired the character of the most skilful philosopher of his age, but by negative excellencies only as being the least ignorant! He received me with great demonstrations of kindness, but I was not so happy as to please him long; for I was too knowing in the subjects he discoursed upon, and I often confuted his notions. Frequently in our disputations I pushed a good argument so home that all his subtlety was not able to elude its force. It was impossible he should see himself surpassed by his scholar without resentment. It is sometimes dangerous to have too much merit. Envy increased against me in proportion to my reputation. † ( I) Abelard was many times an envied scholar, and later on, he was even accused of heresy for his ideas, by the enemies he always made in his circle. But, nevertheless, he became more and more notorious, because of the originality and novelty of his ideas, and especially because of his passion and ability for logic and argumentation. 4. How do Heloise and Abelard fall in love? What challenges must their relationship overcome? What were the consequences for both Abelard and Heloise? What is transcendent or universal about their love story? Together in the house of Heloise’s uncle, under the assumed masks of teacher and student, Heloise and Abelard begin their love story. As it becomes clear from Abelard’s own confessions in the letters to her, and from the imputations she brings on him, in her turn, the beginning of their of their affair was due more to his lust and incontinence rather than to his feelings for her: â€Å"Was it not the sole thought of pleasure which engaged you to me? And has not my tenderness, by leaving you nothing to wish for, extinguished your desires? Wretched Heloise! you could please when you wished to avoid it; you merited incense when you could remove to a distance the hand that offered it: but since your heart has been softened and has yielded, since you have devoted and sacrificed yourself, you are deserted and forgotten! † (II) Heloise however, seems to have given herself completely to her feelings to him, from beginning to end of their love story. After they remained together for the space of a few months, but their love was son discovered by Heloise’s uncle, who, enraged, demanded compensation from Abelard for his offense against the family honor. Abelard decides to marry Heloise, and when the latter becomes pregnant he sends her away to Britanny, to the care of his sister. The actual situation of the two lovers can not be fully comprehended without placing it in the Medieval context. Thus, it would perhaps seem natural to a modern reader that marriage be a solution for Abelard and Heloise, one that would confer legitimacy on their bond, both from the point of view of religion and from that of moral. However, this was not the case at all, for a few clear reasons. First of all, both Abelard and Heloise were both learned people, with such strict and high spiritual aspirations that they were incompatible with the idea of lay marriage. Abelard wanted for himself the kind of pure life that he admired in Saint Jerome or Seneca, and which would bring him the glory he longed for. For Heloise his glory would have been her glory too, so she was actually the one who withstood all she could the idea of marriage. In the strict sense of the world, according to the Medieval moral and religious laws, Abelard had the right to marry, without losing by this act the right to teach or his clerical dignity. The actual danger was that they, as all Medieval scholars, regarded marriage as a form of weakness and incontinence, that would inevitably and permanently drive a scholar away from his prayers and philosophical inquiries. Marriage was therefore considered degrading, and not a lot better than fornication for the ones who aspired to become theologians, because it had the same consequences – surrendering to sensual pleasures and forgetting one’s duty to God: â€Å"If therefore laymen and pagans have lived thus, without the restrictions of a religious profession, how much the more is it your duty to do so, you who are a cleric and a canon, lest you should come to prefer shameful pleasures to the divine service, lest you cast yourself into the gulf of Charybdis and perish, lest you should destroy yourself in these obscenities to the mockery of the whole world. (III) It is precisely in this conflict between their great passion and their aspiration for spiritual heroism, that the tragedy of Heloise and Abelard begins, even more so, when we consider that the spiritual ideals they tried to attain were not imposed on them from the outside, but were their own, and therefore as powerful as their love. It is this context that makes possible the famous and extraordinary statement of Heloise to Abelard, in which she declares that she would rather be his mistress or his prostitute than his wife: â€Å"You cannot but be entirely persuaded of this by the extreme unwillingness I showed to marry you, though I knew that the name of wife was honorable in the world and holy in religion; yet the name of your mistress had greater charms because it was freer. The bonds of matrimony, however honorable, still bear with them a necessary engagement and I was very unwilling to be necessitated to love always a man who would perhaps not always love me. † (II) As she herself declares it, Heloise believed in the disinteresedness of love, and considered, ahead of the time she lived in, that marriage does nothing to preserve the purity of love, but, on the contrary, makes it the slave of ambition or other advantages that are not love itself. Love is not to be confused with mere life or be put under the same necessities as the latter, as it would happen in a marriage, and this is seemingly what the story of Heloise and Abelard signified: a love that surpassed in intensity and nobility the limitations of simple life: â€Å"You have very justly observed in your letter that I esteemed those public engagements insipid which form alliances only to be dissolved by death, and which put life and love under the same unhappy necessity. ( )With what ease did you compose verses! And yet those ingenious trifles, which were but a recreation to you, are still the entertainment and delight of persons of the best taste. The smallest song, the least sketch of anything you made for me, had a thousand beauties capable of making it last as long as there are lovers in the world. Thus those songs will be sung in honor of other women which you designed only for me, and those tender and natural expressions which spoke your love will help others to explain their passion with much more advantage than they themselves are capable of. † (IV) Heloise already takes pride in their love story as something universal that will be used as a ground for comparison for future couples who will be bound by so great a love. The two loved each other with such great ardor and nobility, that their love is pure in spite of their sin. In spite of Heloise’s noble attitude that can not consent either to the loss of glory by the man she loves or to the degrading of noble and free love by binding it to the hearse of marriage, the two eventually contract a â€Å"secret marriage†, a compromise imposed by Abelard, so as not to lose Heloise but at the same time, to maintain his respectfulness in public. Abelard sends his wife to the monastery of Argenteuil to avoid further rumors about their marriage, already dressing her in the nun habit, without knowing that she will wear it forever afterwards . The climax of these happenings comes with the barbaric act of revenge that Heloise’s uncle commits. He bribes the servants of Abelard and these allow for someone to enter the room of their master by night and castrate him. This terrible and symbolic revenge is perhaps what made the love story between Heloise and Abelard legendary. Afterwards, they both retire in convents, Heloise being the first to put on the veil, at Abelard’s command, who not being able to posses her anymore, shuts her up from the world in his jealousy, so that she might never belong to anyone else. This is perhaps the greatest and incontestable act of love and sacrifice she performs for him, surrendering herself completely, and renouncing the greatest thing for him: not the world, as he thought, but him, the man she loved. Their love becomes transcendental and universal through the very passion that fettered them when they were together, but which also manifested itself in their acts of renouncement.

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

The Original Wason Card Selection Problem Essay Example for Free

The Original Wason Card Selection Problem Essay For many years, the Wason card selection problem has proved useful for psychologists and other experts in the study of human reasoning and logical ability (Kahneman Tversky 1982; Almor Sloman 1996; Yama 2001; Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000). One of the most popularly used tools in the assessment of the cognitive architecture of humans, the Wason card selection task tests the participants’ logical intuitions based on conditional implications (Almor Sloman 1996). The task likewise proves whether the human mind â€Å"implements rules of logical inference† (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby, 2000) by the subjects’ demonstrated ability â€Å"to endorse a statement of a general rule† or an argument to counter the rule. (Kahneman Tversky 1982) In the original version of the Wason card selection, the participants of the experiment were shown four cards showing A, T, 4, and 7 by the experimenter. They are then asked to choose which card/s they would turn-over to test the rule â€Å"if a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other† (Wason 1966) or the probability of the relationship â€Å"if p then q† within the four cards. The Wason selection task is structured so that the four cards are limited to display the instances of a true antecedent (TA) or a false antecedent (FA) on the side shown to the subjects, and a true consequent (TC) or a false consequent (FC) on the other. (Yama 2000) Alternatively, the first side shows instances of ‘p’ and ‘not p’ and ‘q’ and ‘not q’ on the side not shown to the subjects. (Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) What has interested many psychologists and experts is the fact that the typical success rate for solving Wason’s problem in experiments conducted is only around twenty percent (20%). (Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) The most common mistake committed by the participants in the card selection process is choosing the cards with A and 4 or A only instead of the correct response that should have been the cards with A or the p-card and 7 or the not-q card because â€Å"an observation of an odd number on the first card (A) or a vowel on the second card (7) would refute the rule.† (Kahneman Tversky 1982). Researchers suggest that this failure from the part of the subjects to provide the correct answers despite the latent simplicity of the problem may be due to the fact that the problem is not represented in its simple logical form (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000), confusing many subjects. On the other hand, a growing number of scholars point out to the role of confirmation bias—or the way that human beings systematically seek for instances that would confirm a theory rather than for instances to refute a theory—as a major hindrance to the effective use of logic and reasoning skills of humans (Klayman Ha 1987; Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) which may also explain why majority of the participants fail in the Wason card selection. Other variations to the task have since been developed. For instance, the task is now being used to test not only the human ability for abstract reasoning but also in deontic reasoning. A variation of the Wason card experiment, one that involves only the number sequence 2-4-6 has also been used to study the process of hypotheses-formation among human beings (Cherubini, Castelvecchio, Cherubini 2005). However, the debate on the way that humans approach problems—whether they indeed express problems in logical form—has yet to be settled. (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000) This study therefore aims to replicate Wason’s original experiment of the four-card selection problem to test whether the same results would be achieved as in the original experiment and to examine whether confirmation bias remained a major problem in answering the tasks for many of the participants. Works Cited: Kahneman, D. A. Tversky. (1982). On the study of statistical intuitions. Cognition, 11: 123-141 Dawson, E., Gilovich, T., D.T. Regan (2002). Motivated reasoning and performance on the Wason selection task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28:1379. Almor, A. S.A. Sloman (1996). Is deontic reasoning special? Psychological Review, 103: 374-380. Yama, H. (2001). Matching versus optimal data selection in the Wason selection task. Thinking and Reasoning, 7(3): 295-311. Fiddick, L., Cosmides, L., J. Tooby. (2000). No interpretation without representation: The role of domain-specific representations and inferences in the Wason selection task. Cognition, 77: 1-79. Wason, P.C. (1966). Reasoning. In B.M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Klayman, J. Y. Ha (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94(2): 211-228. Cherubini, P., Castelvecchio, E., A. M. Cherubini. (2005). Generation of hypotheses in Wason’s 2-4-6 task: An information theory approach. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A(2): 309-332

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Group work in Primary Schools

Group work in Primary Schools Group work, known to others as collaborative or cooperative learning, is defined as a situation in which, two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together [Wikipedia Contributors, 2010]. This paper focuses on how working collaboratively impacts both teaching and learning in primary schools. It describes the background to the development of collaborative learning and highlights the techniques often employed. The principles to effective group work are explained, with both advantages and disadvantages noted. Collaborative learning is a pedagogical strategy which utilizes a variety of learning activities to enhance a students understanding of a particular topic. This is an improvement to traditional learning models also defined as non-interactive lectures, where knowledge is gained from direct lectures or the reading of books and articles. Traditional learning commands very little interaction or participation from the students, therefore a lot or very little may be learnt depending on the individual. Collaborative learning consequently stands as a constructivist approach to learning, and is identified as originating from a constructivist epistemology, as students are asked to participate and contribute to their own learning and development. The ideas of scholars such as Burner, Kohlberg, Piaget and Vygotsky are used in the development of collaborative learning, which essentially implies that both the student and the environment are actively dynamic entities in the learning process as the student tries to impersonate the lessons. This process requires that knowledge be discovered and translated using language and other learning aides to which the students can actively relate. Lawrence Kohlberg researched the moral decisions made by children. His investigation is such that he developed an interview process offering a number of scenarios, each with a moral dilemma for which he had pre-determined answers. He realized that six stages of moral development existed and that some people are unable to reach most advanced levels of ethical interpretation. He thereby concluded that; the development of moral reasoning happens in a particular sequence, and that each step of the way is a precursor to the next [KidsDevelopment.co.uk, 2010]. Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development suggests that individuals go through a series of stages on their way to independent thinking. Piaget states that all knowledge concerning reality results from actions or operations upon it, which makes it change, revealing its stable and variational properties (Piaget, 1980 p222). Lev Vygotsky believed that socialization increases knowledge and often time changes a childs thoughts and behaviours. Vygotsky suggests that learning is achieved in three ways; imitative, instructed and collaborative. Imitative learning involves the student simply copying what was taught and instructed learning involves the student following directions previously given. Vygotskys work was focussed on two important ideas. First being the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD); this describes the level of differentiation between a problem that a student can solve independently and a problem in which a student will require the assistance of others. ZPD is often identified as an individuals level of actual competency relative to their level for potential development. The second idea is known as scaffolding and describes the aspect of support given to students when it is desired. Group work allows students to work together in small teams, combining people with varying backgrounds, experiences, technical and intellectual competencies, towards the attainment of a specific objective. Each member of the team has the responsibility of learning the material for himself, while also helping other members to clearly understand the lesson thus creating an atmosphere of achievement (Palmer, Peters and Streetman. 2008). Students thereby gain both knowledge and social skills. The use of group discussions helps students to explain concepts and ideas by providing immediate feedbacks. Students learn how to troubleshoot cooperatively in order to find the best solution to a problem. When students formulate their own solutions in this manner, they are truly thinking critically (Davis, Mahler Noddings, 1990). Swortzel expresses that there are two major theoretical approaches to group work Motivational and Cognitive (Swortzel, 1997). Group work is seen as motivational because students recognize that their success or failure in the attainment of the specified goal is dependent on them being able to work together as a team. They thereby encourage each other to get the assigned tasks done properly and on time, in so doing cooperative learning increases students motivation to do academic work (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1986). The cognitive approach suggests that through group work students become more critical with their thinking. Students are stimulated to think outside the box, thus acquiring increased levels of perception, awareness, and reasoning and judgment abilities. Group discussions are very interactive with each individual expressing their viewpoint. Within a diverse group, there will be undoubtedly varying opinions consequently highlighting approaches to the same topic. A collaborative framework must first be established before the implementation of collaborative learning techniques. The teacher should research collaborative learning and observer other teachers who have already implement the use of group work. The teacher should grasp a good understanding of the advantages and disadvantages to group work and must develop a keen appreciation for the technique of scaffolding. The teacher then needs to decide if collaborative learning is ideal for the subject being taught, the type of students and take into account classroom restrictions, if any. Teachers implementing collaborative learning are expected to be competent in the following areas: Specifying instructional objectives Determining group size and assign students to groups Determining Group Size and Assign Students to Groups Classroom arrangement Planning instructional materials to promote Interdependence Assigning group roles Assigning tasks Structuring positive interdependence and accountability Explaining the criteria for success Specifying desired behaviours Before implementing collaborative learning the teacher should explain to the students their decision for the use of group work and explain the advantages and disadvantages. The determination of group sizes may vary depending on the nature of the task and the workload. Groups can be homogeneous or heterogeneous, grouping students with similar interests and strengths or they may be totally randomly selected. Once groups are established they usually do not change very often, so as to allow students to develop a constructive working relationship with each other. It is important that the furniture in the classroom be organized in a way which allows the students to work as a unit, preferably facing each other, whilst allowing for their flexible movements. Teachers should take into account the existing resources needed for successful task completion and ensure that they are readily accessible by the groups. The instructions and materials a teacher chooses for a group should ensure that each member of the group makes a meaningful contribution and that individual assignments within the group will be evenly distributed. Teachers should structure positive interdependence and accountability by regularly testing both the groups and the members of the group for understanding of the subject matter. Members should be encouraged to be able to actively defend the stance of the group and their own. The criteria for success of the group should be clearly communicated and measures put into place to evaluate the groups performance as a unit as well as the individual performances of the members. Once the groups have been established, teachers need to monitor the behaviour of the students and assist with needs while monitoring. In so doing, teachers may assist with the answering of questions and provide and alternate point of view or opinion. Teachers may also provide feedback on the work completed or the progress made. Should conflicts arise within the groups, teachers should intervene to ensure that such conflicts are quickly resolved and explain the implications of undesirable behaviours. It is also very important that teachers provide approbation and, or motivation where it is deserved. Students play the most important role in the art of collaborative learning. Their roles include and are not limited to, working together, actively listening to each other, keeping records of work and progress, questioning each other, assuming personal responsibility and completing the assigned task. An article written by Dillenbourg and Schneider states that there are a few mechanisms to collaborative learning: Conflict or Disagreement, suggesting that when peer to peer conflicts arise, social factors cause learners to ignore the disagreement and to some extent forces them to find a feasible solution to the problem. One aspect of this theory states that diverging viewpoints usually lead to academic gains, while the other states that when conflicts are not verbalized they do not predict positive outcomes (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This article draws two conclusions relative to this mechanism one being that slight misunderstandings can be as efficient as a clear conflict between two agents who respectively believe P and not P and the second being that verbal interactions generated to solve conflict are related to learning outcomes (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). Alternative Proposal also referred to as the confirmation biases by Dillenbourg and Schneider (1995). In so doing students actively develop ideas that support their suggestions and completely disregard ideas that do not. They often times cannot abandon their idea or suggestion because another suggestion may not be forthcoming; however other group members make alternate suggestions. (Self-) explanation; the Self-Explanation effect, as it is in known in many cognitive science literature, describes that in a situation where one student is more knowledge that the other, the latter will automatically learn from the form, and also that the former will grasp a better understanding of the topic being explained as he endeavours to translate into to terms to with the latter student can actively relate. Having successfully explained the more knowledgeable student would have improved upon his skills to interrelate and gained improved confidence. Had there been any uncertainties in the explanation, someone even more knowledgeable might be able to clarify. Internalization; the article explains this mechanism as one in which students explain or justify their suggestions to each other, the verbalization of such impacts all involved and that the concepts communicated are integrated into the listeners reasoning. Thinking is viewed a discussion that one has with oneself and which develops on the basis of discussions we had with others (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). The article also states that for this mechanism to be effective a few conditions must be met, One condition is that subjects can only assimilate concepts which are within their zone of proximal development, i.e. within the neighbourhood of the current cognitive level. Another condition is that the less able peer is not left as a passive listener, but participates into the joint problem solving strategy (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995) Appropriation, this is explained as one student observing the ideas or explanations of another and taking those ideas or explanations and building on it to make their own. Learning is two-fold as the first student reinterprets his actions relative to that of the second, and the second student got a sound foundation on which to build. Shared Cognitive Load, this involves the distribution of tasks which will come together to achieve the overall objective of the group. When the workload is even shared between students, each student can work meticulously on the assigned task, thereby eliminating redundancies and improving the efficiency of the group. Mutual Regulation, by employing any of or a combination of the mechanisms previously described, students often have to regulate the actions of each other to ensure that the stipulated guidelines are adhered to for the attainment of their goals. Social Grounding, described lucidly by Dillenbourg and Schneider as the mechanism by which an individual attempts to maintain the belief that his partner has understood what he meant, at least to an extent which is sufficient to carry out the task at hand (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This mechanism requires the speaker to check for understanding, and where misunderstand is visible to clarify, thereby building a share understanding of the problem. George W. Gagnon. Jr., and Michelle Collay developed another design for collaborative learning and in this model teachers develop a series of steps that their teaching structure follows as listed below: They develop a situation for the students to explain (Gagnon and Collay, 2004) They select a process for groupings of materials and students (Gagnon and Collay, 2004) They build a bridge between what students already know and what the teachers want them to learn (Gagnon and Collay,2004) They anticipate questions to ask and answer without giving away an explanation (Gagnon and Collay, 2004) They encourage students to exhibit a record of their thinking by sharing it with others (Gagnon and Collay, 2004), and They solicit students reflections about their learning (Gagnon and Collay, 2004). A comparison of there collaborative techniques, is illustrated in Appendix 1. Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) highlights three key tasks teachers should follow for the evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness after there group work is completed. Firstly, teachers should provide a closure through summarization. That is, to summarize the lessons important points or to have each group explain their work and the points they found of most significance. Secondly is to evaluate the students learning, by assessing how they have attained or failed to attain the desired outcome and providing the feedback required, allowing students to improve on their ability to work as a group and hence personal development. Thirdly, teachers should make note of the techniques that worked and why they worked and if necessary adjust their lessons. A popular definition of constructivism is that Constructivism is a theory of knowledge which claims that knowledge is not passively received but actively constructed by the learner, and that the function of cognition is adaptive, serving to organise experience, rather than discover reality(online, 2010) Group work has academic, social and physiological benefits to both students and teachers. Academic benefits include: the development of critical thinking and the active involvement of students in the learning process. The social benefits include: the development of social learning systems for students and builds diversity understanding among students and teachers. The physiological benefits include: increased self-esteem through peer-to-peer instructions and it reduces the anxiety of students. Although collaborative learning seems to be dependent on the actions and willingness to learn, which should for many be a natural process, there are many disadvantages as there are advantages to is implementation. A few of the obstacles faced are; some students prefer to work competitively rather that collaboratively, teachers lack the ability to readily assess the work produced, teachers sometimes do not know how to measure the effectiveness of their teachings in a collaborative setting, sometimes the assigned tasks are not applicable to a students goals or abilities, and sometimes the tasks are not difficult enough to challenge but not so difficult as to stonewall a conversation. Some groups may be comprised of slow learners who may be viewed as others as invaluable, thereby promoting superior behaviour by the fast learners. Table 1, Appendix 2, illustrated various group structures and the advantages and disadvantages to these groups. Nigel Hastings and Karen Chantrey-Wood from Nottingham Trent University explores the many strategies teachers utilize in group work activities, many of which are strongly endorsed by a committee known as the Plowden Committee. By spending time with groups of children, teachers could adjust their teaching to the needs of the individuals of that group to a greater extent than when working with an entire class of students as a whole. This also ensures that all children have a reasonable amount of direct contact with their teacher regardless of the fact that they are working in groups [Hastings Wood, 2002]. This suggests that collaborative learning enhances the occurrence of individualized attention given to students, by introducing one-on-one interactions between students and peers and students and teachers. The article also illustrates that classroom arrangement is very important in ensuring that collaborative learning is efficient and effective. It shows that collaborative learning in widely accepted and very commonly practiced across the globe; In primary classrooms throughout the UK, it is standard practice for children to sit around grouped tables usually with four to six children in each group. Such arrangements are also common in primary schools in other English-speaking countries, Australia and USA for example. Precisely because this configuration is so normal and so well established in our schools, it is unusual to ask about its rationale or to question its appropriateness [Hastings Wood, 2002]. An abstract written from an experiment conducted by Gillies and Ashman, One hundred and ninety-two Grade 6 children participated in a study which compared the effects on behavioural interactions and achievement of (a) cooperative learning in which group members were trained to collaborate to facilitate each others learning, and (b) cooperative learning in which members were not trained but were merely told to help each other. Stratified random assignment of participants occurred so that each gender-balanced group consisted of one high-, two medium-, and one low-ability studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Gillies Ashman, 1999). The observations showed that the students who worked in the Trained groups where more responsive and helpful to each other, giving explanations where necessary to assist as they worked together. It showed that students in the untrained groups were a lot less helpful towards or cooperative with each other. From the results it was also concluded that the children in the trai ned groups exercised more autonomy with their learning and obtained higher learning outcomes than untrained peers (Gillies Ashman, 1999). This study is one of the many to attest to the success of group work. Despite some drawbacks Collaborative learning has numerous benefits, as is explained, ranging from academic to physiological and it implementation in primary schools is quite a positive move. Students at the primary school level are quite impressionable and there is no better time for them to develop the very valuable competences that working in a group has to offer. At the primary school level they are mature enough to have an understanding of what group work requires. Many of the studies conducted were centralized around childhood developments. Students who can successfully work in groups from the primary school level are usually better equipped for when entering higher level learning institutions. They would have learnt to comfortably relate with peers and adults, such as teachers or other authority figures, they would have learnt the value of self-expression and self-explanation, actively listen and respect the views of others. These students realize that as individuals we have d ifferent backgrounds, experiences and traditions and as such may have diverging approaches to the same problem. These students will also be better able to differentiate between the need to work collaborative and the need to work competitively and in so doing will know when best to apply the respective approaches. This research has revealed that both the teachers and the students play a pivotal role in the success of collaborative learning. Teachers are not expected to only assign tasks and sit back while the students work on their own. Teachers must play an active role throughout the process. They must plan for the assignment with clearly structured tasks that will promote collaborative interactions, promote interdependency and stimulate cognitive thinking among students. Teacher must monitor the process providing ongoing feedback and be readily able to resolve conflicts should they arise. Teachers should be able to actively scaffold their students, knowing when their support is needed and that it should gradually be withdraw. Students in order to successfully achieve their objectives in groups must appreciate the benefits of group work. They must have a clear understanding of the desired objective and the sub-task requirement to successfully achieve the objective. They must be able to actively and reflectively listen to each other and utilize creativity and objectivity to work positively together. In so doing they will learn to foster positive work attitudes with others, thereby improving on their interpersonal skills as they prepare for the work world. Appendix 1 Three Constructivist Design Models [1] 1. The Learning Cycle 2. The Learning Step developed by George W. Gagnon. Jr. and Michelle Collay 3. The Information Construction (ICON) model created by Robert O. McClintock and John B. Black, and is very similar to Dillenbourg and Schneider. Appendix 2 Table 1: Forms of Cooperative Groups[2] NAME OF GROUP WHAT IS THIS? WORKS BEST FOR BENEFITS DRAWBACKS Pair-share 2 students with one problem share their ideas or questions. Each person speaks, listens, gives feedback. Content that requires discussion, reflection, or explanation. Increased engagement time, Helps those who are shy Fewer perspectives and solutions Jigsaw Each member of the small group researches one part of the question /content for a certain amount of time. The members of the group come back together. Each member teaches his/her part to the rest of the group. Content with four or five parts to research. Students gain teaching and research skills Some students feel pressured by a time limit Split-class discussion The class is split into half. Each side discusses /debates their knowledge /beliefs, etc. Debates or discussions Students may change their opinion or develop a different perspective Some students may speak less with such a large group. Random groups of 3 Class is split into groups of 3. The groups discuss the topic. Predicting what will happen, responding to a situation. Receive a variety of feedback, group members are accountable Easy to leave out or team up against a shy student or one who has a different opinion Ability/Interest/Friendship Group Students are divided into groups based on some quality that they all have in common. Creating plays/skits or an activity in which students must work together outside of class. Students can work at a pace that best suits them, students are rarely bored and often motivated It is unrealistic to find a completely homogeneous group, weaker or unpopular students may be excluded. Diversity Groups Students are formed into groups where they come from a wide variety of backgrounds, interests, etc. Exploring geography, history, and diverse lifestyles. There are many opportunities to gain different perspectives Minorities may become alienated Multi-aged groups Students are divided into groups in which there are a mixture of ages Older students teaching younger students (i.e. science experiments). Older students- there is less pressure to compete with peers, Younger students fell important that an older person is spending time with them Older students may be a bad influence; Older students may not know how to work with a younger child or an at risk student Peer-led Conferences Students prepare and lead a discussion of material with parents, instructors, students, etc. A major project in which students set up stations for several intelligences. Students get the opportunity to authentically teach, students learn self confidence. Students whose parents are inactive in the school may be alienated from those whose parents participate; some students may not be involved in interactions. Notes: These diagrams were obtained from: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation_sub1.html This table was obtained from: http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cooperative_Learning#Frequently_Asked_Questions_about_Cooperative_Learning

Free Euthanasia Essays: Hospice and Physician-Assisted Suicide :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

Hospice and Assisted Suicide/Euthanasia One Work Cited This essay will present the views of that worldwide organization named Hospice which has seen the quiet, natural death of millions of terminally ill patients - without the use of physician-assisted suicide. It is important that the voice of the largest caregiver for the terminally ill be heard, and listened to attentively. For they have the most experience. The Hemlock Society is nothing (in scope, importance, goals)in comparison to this great Hospice Organization (HO). Hospice professionals and caregivers have given the issue of physician-assisted suicide much thought and consideration in recent years, and adopted an organizational position on the issue as early as February of 1992. Last year, when the debate increased in intensity, the HO not only reaffirmed its earlier position, but strengthened it. The Organization's Resolution clearly states, "That assisted suicide is not a component of hospice care; ..." and "That the Hospice Organization does not support the legalization of voluntary euthanasia or assisted suicide in the care of the terminally ill." Hospice workers, likely more than any other group of care providers, deal with the desperation that many individuals feel when they accept the fact that their illness is likely to be the cause of their death. In that process, hospice staff deal not only with the physical pain of the illness, but also the emotional pain of facing leaving one's family, the social pain of enduring what may be considered indignities, and the spiritual pain associated with one's cultural and personal beliefs about life after death. Through an interdisciplinary approach that is unique to hospice care, patients who elect hospice receive treatment for all their concerns. Hospice caregivers have discovered three central reasons a terminally ill person may want to discuss suicide. One is a fear of uncontrolled pain. Another is fear of abandonment, of being left alone to die and feeling there is no one to care. The third is concern over financial pressures that may leave a family devastated by the last illness. Hospice addresses these concerns as quickly in the disease process as is possible, and hospice workers everywhere will tell the public that when these issues are under control, the desire to end one's life becomes a non-issue. Hospice workers dedicate their professional and often their personal lives to successfully resolving those issues. The hospice community is very concerned that the legalization of

Monday, August 19, 2019

Dragonsbane :: essays research papers

The setting for Dragonsbane was in about the 1400's in a place called Wyr. Jenny John and Gareth are the main characters. Jenny is a wizard women who is always trying to advance her skills but still isn't very good. John is Jenny's husband and is also a dragon's bane, which means that he has slayed a dragon. Gareth is a prince who's hero is John. And final Zyerne, she is also a wizard women whom is the most powerful in the land. Gareth comes up from the South to ask of John's assistance in slaying a dragon that is threatening the King's lands. John decides to go with him and talk to the king. When they get there they find out that Zyerne is holding the king under some sort of spell and using him for her bidding. John talks to the king and gets ready to slay the dragon. He asks Jenny to make the most powerful poisons she can and then dips his harpoons in it. John then rides off to slay the dragon. When the battle his over Jenny goes out to were the battle happened and finds the dragon and John lying in bloody pools and realizes that john is still alive. She takes him back to camp and puts healing spells on him. She then goes back to the dragon and sees that he is still alive to. The dragon told her that if she healed him that he would tell her where the books of healing were in the caves called the deep so she could heal John. She agrees and the dragon through telepathy shows her the way in the maze of tunnels. It is always said to save a dragon is to slave a dragon for life. So Jenny saved the dragon and John. Zyerne was waiting for them to kill the dragon so she could take over the deep because of the huge amounts of gold in them. So Zyerne came and tried to kill the dragon and Jenny but failed and she was killed. The dragon through all of this fell in love with Jenny and asked her to turn into a dragon and return with him to were the dragons lived.

Sunday, August 18, 2019

Dr. Stephen Hawking; Man Of Mystery :: essays research papers

Dr. Stephen Hawking has been considered to be more brilliant then Einstein. Dr. Hawking was born on January 8 1942 in Oxford, England on the 300th anniversary of Galileo’s death. Is this a coincidence? After his studies at St. Albans School, he attended University College, Oxford. He wanted to study Mathematics, but because it was unavailable at Oxford, he concentrated on Physics and earned a degree in Natural Science three years later. Stephen went on to Cambridge to do research in Cosmology. After attaining his Ph.D., he became a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College. He left the Institute of Astronomy to become a professor at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge. He has held the post of Lacasian Professor of Mathematics since 1979. In the early 1960’s, Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with the dreadful disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (A.L.S.), an incurable degenerative neuromuscular disease, also known as Lou Gerh ig’s Disease. He has been paralyzed unable to use every muscle in his body. The only muscles he has use of are those around his eyes. This explains why Hawking has become a theoretician rather than a â€Å"hands-on† scientist. He spends hour after hour in his wheelchair pondering complex ideas and formulating mind bobbling equations in his head. Dr. Hawking’s work is primarily in the field of general relativity and in particular on the physics of black holes. He uses his theory on the origin of black holes to help explain the creation of the universe. In 1971 he suggested the formation (following the big bang), of numerous objects containing as much as 1,000,000,000 tons of mass but occupying only the space of a proton. These objects, called mini- black holes, are unique in that because of their immense mass and gravity, they are ruled by the laws if relativity, while their minute size requires that the laws of quantum mechanics apply to them also. In 1974, Hawking proposed that, in accordance with the predications of quantum theory, black holes emit subatomic particles until they exhaust all their energy and finally explode. Hawking’s work spurred efforts to theoretically delineate the properties of black holes. It was previously thought that nothing could be learned about black holes. Now we know that each bl ack hole starts out as a star about ten times the size of the sun. Over time, the star burns all its nuclear fuel and explodes.